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Protocols
MT/AT/EATConfiguration Management of Relay Settings and the SCDHow traceability of relay settings and the SCD is lost, what a baseline is, how changes are controlled, and what IEC 61850-6 and IEEE 1686 add.MT/AT/EATGOOSE between relays of different brands: what it takesWhat it takes to exchange GOOSE between relays of different brands: SCL files, editions, VLAN, APPID, datasets and testing, plus the typical problems.AT/EATGOOSE between substations: TR 61850-90-1 and R-GOOSEWhy layer 2 GOOSE does not leave the substation and how it reaches another one: layer 2 tunnels, routable R-GOOSE from TR 61850-90-5 and its security.MT/AT/EATGOOSE vs MMS in IEC 61850: differences and usesGOOSE vs MMS in IEC 61850: publisher-subscriber versus client-server, network layer, transfer times and what each one is used for in the substation.MT/AT/EATIEC 61850 Edition 1 vs 2 vs 2.1: differencesWhat changed between IEC 61850 Editions 1, 2 and 2.1: test and simulation, LGOS and LSVS, SCL and quality, and what to check when mixing IED editions.MT/AT/EATIEC 61850 system configurator: what it is, which existWhat the IEC 61850 system configurator is, how it differs from the IED configurator, what it does with SSD, ICD and SCD files and which tools exist.MT/AT/EATIEC 61850 test tools: simulators and analyzersTools for IEC 61850 testing: MMS client, IED and GOOSE simulator, network analyzer, SCL validator and test set with GOOSE and Sampled Values.MT/AT/EATIEC 61850 to IEC 104 and DNP3 mapping in the gatewayHow a gateway translates IEC 61850 to IEC 60870-5-104 and DNP3: logical nodes to addresses, quality, time tags, SBO commands and what gets lost.AT/EATIEC 61850 to the control center: TR 61850-90-2How to take IEC 61850 from the substation to the control center under IEC TR 61850-90-2: use cases, proxy or gateway, services and SCL engineering.IEC 61850 top-down and bottom-up engineering: SSD to CIDTop-down (SSD, SCD, CID) vs bottom-up (ICD, SCD) IEC 61850 engineering: tools, roles, multi-vendor exchange and what to hand over to the owner.MT/AT/EATIEC 61850 Traffic in Wireshark: What a Capture RevealsWhat a Wireshark capture of GOOSE, Sampled Values and MMS shows: stNum, sqNum, TAL, simulation, smpCnt and the patterns behind each network fault.MT/AT/EATIEC 61850 transfer time: classes and measurementIEC 61850-5 transfer time: classes TT0 to TT6, why a GOOSE trip needs 3 ms, what each link in the chain adds and how the whole path is verified.MT/AT/EATIEC 61850 vs IEC 104 vs DNP3 vs Modbus: which to useIEC 61850, IEC 60870-5-104, IEC 101, DNP3 and Modbus compared: what each was born for, at which substation level it is used and when it fits.MT/AT/EATIEC 61850-3 and IEEE 1613: EMC and environmental testsWhat IEC 61850-3 and IEEE 1613 require of substation switches, clocks and gateways: EMC, temperature, safety, IEEE 1613 Class 2 and what to ask for.MT/AT/EATMigrating from IEC 103, 101 or Modbus to IEC 61850How to plan migrating a substation from IEC 60870-5-103, 101 or Modbus to IEC 61850: coexistence via gateway, bay-by-bay or staged replacement, and risks.Protection testing with GOOSE and Sampled ValuesWhat changes when testing IEC 61850 protection with GOOSE and Sampled Values instead of wires: subscription, test mode, simulation and logical isolation.MT/AT/EATPTP vs NTP vs IRIG-B: substation time synchronizationPTP versus NTP and IRIG-B in substations: the accuracy each application needs per IEC 61850-5, cable versus network, holdover and a selection table.AT/EATSampled Values and GOOSE Bandwidth: How to Estimate ItHow to estimate process bus load: SV frame size and rate (9-2LE and IEC 61869-9), GOOSE bursts, the effect of PRP and HSR, and why 1 Gbit/s is used.
Networks and devices
MT/AT/EATAutomatic Retrieval of Oscillography and Event RecordsHow relay COMTRADE files and event records reach a central server: IEC 61850 MMS file transfer, SFTP or vendor software, file naming and security.AT/EATCentralized protection and control (CPC) in substationsCentralized protection and control (CPC): one platform runs the functions of every bay on sampled values. Redundancy, technology status and testing.ANSI 87LDirect or Multiplexed Fiber for 87L Line DifferentialDedicated fiber or a C37.94 multiplexer for 87L: delay, asymmetry, ping-pong or GPS compensation, and the effect of route switching on the relay.AT/EATIntrusion Detection (IDS) in Substation NetworksHow an IDS works on a substation network: passive monitoring, a baseline of IEC 61850, IEC 104 and DNP3 traffic, typical alerts and sensor placement.AT/EATOPGW and ADSS cable: fiber on transmission linesWhat OPGW cable is and how it differs from ADSS, how the line fiber reaches the substation, IEEE 1138, IEEE 1222 and IEC 60794-4, and typical failures.AT/EATRedundant Teleprotection Channels: Routes and DiversityWhy EHV lines duplicate the teleprotection channel, what route and media diversity mean, and how the two channels are combined in each scheme.MT/AT/EATSecure remote access to relays and substationsSecure remote access architecture for protective relays: VPN, DMZ, jump server, multi-factor authentication, approved and recorded sessions, and logging.MT/AT/EATSingle-mode vs multimode fiber in substationsSingle-mode vs multimode fiber in a substation: core size, wavelength, Ethernet distances, connectors, optical power budget and EMC immunity.MT/AT/EATSubstation Communication Network Testing: FAT and SATWhat is checked in a substation communication network: inventory, VLANs, redundancy, time sync, load, security, GOOSE, MMS and SCADA points.MT/AT/EATSubstation communications by voltage level: MV, HV, EHVWhat changes in substation communications at medium, high and extra-high voltage: protocols, topology, redundancy, time sync and teleprotection.AT/EATSubstation GNSS clock: holdover, redundancy and risksWhat happens when a substation GNSS clock loses the satellites: holdover, redundant clocks, jamming, spoofing and the alarms that must reach SCADA.MT/AT/EATSubstation IP addressing and VLAN planWhat the addressing plan of an IEC 61850 substation decides: IP subnets, VLANs per function, GOOSE and SV MAC and APPID, device names and spare ranges.MT/AT/EATSubstation Network Monitoring: SNMP and SyslogWhich communication network alarms to bring to SCADA, how SNMPv3, syslog and the LGOS and LCCH logical nodes collect them, and the link to cybersecurity.MT/AT/EATSubstation network redundancy: RSTP, PRP, HSR or MRPHow to choose substation network redundancy: RSTP, MRP, PRP or HSR, recovery time, cost, SAN, DAN and RedBox nodes, and what each function requires.MT/AT/EATSubstation network topologies: star, ring, ladderStar, dual star, ring, ring of rings and ladder in a substation network: availability, cost, hop count and what happens when a switch fails.AT/EATTeleprotection and 87L over IP/MPLS: what changesTeleprotection and 87L line differential over MPLS: SDH versus packets, latency, delay variation, asymmetry, MPLS-TP versus IP/MPLS, circuit emulation.AT/EATUtility WAN for Substations: IEC TR 61850-90-12What each traffic type needs from a utility WAN (teleprotection, SCADA, synchrophasors, voice and video): QoS, separation, timing and redundancy.
Control and SCADA
MTDistribution automation: reclosers and FLISRDistribution automation on MV feeders: reclosers, sectionalizers, faulted circuit indicators, FLISR and volt/VAR control, and their integration into SCADA.MT, AT, EATPoint-to-point signal testing: SAS and SCADAPoint-to-point signal testing in a substation automation system (SAS): from the terminal to the IED, SCADA and control center, with quality and time stamp.AT/EATRedundant gateway and dual links to the control centerHow the control center link is made redundant: hot or standby gateways, IEC 60870-5-104 redundancy groups, two control centers and separate routes.MT/ATSCADA vs SAS vs DCS vs HMI: differences in power systemsDifferences between SCADA, SAS, DCS, HMI and PLC: what each one does, where it sits (plant, substation or control center) and which one controls which.MT/AT/EATSubstation automation retrofit: modernizing a SASWhen and how to modernize a substation automation system: signs of obsolescence, bay-by-bay or parallel retrofit options, risks and testing.MT/AT/EATSubstation automation system (SAS): functions and levelsWhat a substation automation system (SAS) is, the functions it performs, its station, bay and process levels, and the role IEC 61850 plays in it.MT/AT/EATSubstation control building: what is insideWhat is inside a substation control building: protection and control panels, SCADA and SAS, communications, station service and fire safety requirements.MT/AT/EATSubstation signal list for SCADA: points, naming, testsWhat a substation signal list contains: status, alarms, controls, measurands and counters, how points are named and grouped, and mistakes that cost months.MT, AT, EATTest switches and bay isolation for relay testingWhat to isolate before testing an in-service protective relay, physical test switches versus IEC 61850 test mode, and the risks when restoring the bay.
Interlocking and control logic
MT, ATAutomatic capacitor bank control in MV and HVMV and HV capacitor bank control: by voltage, vars, power factor or time, discharge blocking and coordination with the transformer OLTC.MT, ATAutomatic service restoration after a loss of voltageAutomatic restoration after a total loss of voltage: undervoltage opening, waiting for stable voltage, staggered closing and blocking on faults.AT, EATAutomatic switching sequences in substationsAutomatic switching sequences: what is automated, where the sequence runs, how it respects the interlocks and why it stops.Bay and Station Interlocking: DifferencesWhich interlocks a bay solves alone, which need positions from other bays, where they are programmed and what happens if the station level is lost.Breaker Close Permissives: What Blocks the CloseCircuit breaker close permissives: springs, SF6, lockout relay 86, anti-pump, interlocking, synchronism and control authority, and who owns each one.AT/EATBreaker-and-a-Half Interlocking: Diameter and LinesInterlocking in a breaker-and-a-half diameter: disconnectors of each breaker, line disconnector, earthing switches, center breaker and bus earthing.AT/EATBreaker-and-a-Third Interlocking: The Centre CircuitBreaker-and-a-third interlocking: four circuit breakers per diameter, the centre circuit and how it differs from the breaker-and-a-half arrangement.AT/EATBus coupler interlocking: when it must not openBus coupler breaker interlocking: open blocking during on-load bus transfer, its disconnectors, the 87B and the coupler standing in for a bay breaker.AT/EATBus Disconnector Interlocking: ConditionsBus disconnector (89B) interlocking conditions: breaker open, earthing switches, on-load bus transfer between buses, and variants by configuration.ATBypass and transfer disconnector interlockingTransfer (89T) and bypass disconnector interlocking: one circuit transferred at a time, the transfer breaker and moving the protection to it.ANSI 25Dead line live bus closing: device 25 modesDead-voltage closing modes of the 25 function: live bus dead line, dead bus live line, dead-dead, the risks and coordination with 79 reclosing.AT/EATDouble Bus Double Breaker Interlocking and Stub ZoneDouble bus double breaker interlocking: two breakers per circuit, line disconnector with both open, bus earthing switch and stub bus protection.ATDouble Bus with Transfer and Bypass InterlockingDouble bus bypass interlocking: the bus coupler as the circuit breaker, one bypass at a time, a cleared bus and moving the protection to the coupler.AT/EATDouble Busbar Interlocking: Bus Coupler and TransferDouble busbar interlocking: bus selector disconnectors, bus coupler, bus earthing, on-load bus transfer and the disconnector replica for 87B protection.MTFast motor bus transfer: the three methodsMotor bus transfer per IEEE C37.96: fast, in-phase and residual voltage methods, simultaneous and sequential modes, and why transient torque matters.MTFLISR: self-healing distribution networksWhat FLISR is: locate, isolate and restore with reclosers and switches. Centralized, distributed and local logic, communications and why it fails.GOOSE Interlocking with CILO and CSWI (IEC 61850)Interlocking between bays with IEC 61850: position in XSWI and XCBR, GOOSE, evaluation in CILO, permission in CSWI, and what happens if a message is lost.MT/ATH Configuration Interlocking: Bridge and Two SourcesH substation interlocking: bridge with circuit breaker or disconnectors, two lines in parallel, transfer between transformers and node earthing.IEC 61850 Test Mode: Mod, Beh, Sim and the Test BitIED modes in IEC 61850 (on, blocked, test, test/blocked, off), the test bit in the quality and GOOSE simulation with LPHD.Sim for bay isolation.MT/AT/EATInterlock bypass: release, risks and controlInterlocking bypass or override in substations: why it exists, what risks it carries and how it is controlled with a key, permit, alarm and event log.BT/MT/AT/EATInterlocking at EHV, HV, MV and LV: what changesHow substation interlocking changes with voltage level: logic in BCUs and GOOSE at HV and EHV, mechanical in MV switchgear, cable or key in LV.MTInterlocking in primary selective and MV open-loop systemsInterlocking in primary selective and MV open-loop systems: interlocked selectors, RMUs, the normally open point and closing a loop between feeders.Interlocking Testing: What Is Checked at FAT and SATInterlocking tests at FAT and SAT: each condition positive and negative, invalid position, GOOSE loss, bypass and control levels, with the test matrix.MT/BTKirk and Castell trapped key interlocking: how it worksTrapped key interlocking (Kirk, Castell): principle, typical sequences in switchgear, transformers and low-voltage transfer schemes, and its limits.AT/EATLine and bus earthing switch interlockingInterlocking logic of line and bus earthing (grounding) switches: isolation from every source, absence of voltage and the remote end of the line.AT/EATLine disconnector interlocking (89L): conditionsLine disconnector (89L) interlocking conditions: breakers, earthing switch, switching sequence, breaker-and-a-half, ring bus and the remote end.BTLow-voltage breaker and tie interlockingMechanical and electrical interlocking of low-voltage breakers: cable or rod, 2-of-3 in main-tie-main, utility-generator and the undervoltage release.MT/ATMain and Transfer Bus Interlocking: 89T and BypassMain and transfer bus interlocking: one circuit at a time, transfer disconnector 89T, transfer breaker and moving the protection to the transfer breaker.MT/BTMain-Tie-Main Interlocking: Secondary-Selective SystemsMain-tie-main interlocking in secondary-selective systems: two of three breakers closed, key or electrical interlocks, auto transfer, closed transition.Mechanical and Electrical Interlocking in SubstationsHow mechanical and electrical interlocking work on disconnectors, earthing switches, breakers and switchgear, when each is used and why they are combined.MTMedium-voltage automatic transfer: main-tie-main logicHow main-tie-main automatic transfer works in medium-voltage switchgear: 27 detection, bus fault blocking, retransfer and motor loads.MTMV switchgear and RMU interlockingInterlocks in MV switchgear and ring main units (IEC 62271-200): switching device, earthing switch, truck, compartment access, fuses and panel-to-panel.Paralleling Transformers with OLTC: Master-FollowerParalleling transformers with OLTC: conditions, circulating current and regulator 90 control by master-follower, circulating current or power factor.AT, EATPoint-on-wave controlled switching: what it is and usesControlled (point-on-wave) switching: why breakers close or open at a chosen point of the wave for capacitor banks, reactors, transformers and lines.AT/EATRing Bus Interlocking: Open Ring and Voltage SelectionRing bus interlocking: the circuit disconnector depends on two breakers, the open ring condition and voltage selection for synchronism check.MT/ATSectionalized Busbar Interlocking: Bus Section BreakerSectionalized single busbar interlocking: bus section breaker or disconnector, earthing per section, and closing between two sources with sync check 25.AT/EATSectionalized Double Bus and Triple Bus InterlockingInterlocking with several bus couplers and sections: sectionalized double bus, triple bus, reserve bus and why station-level logic works better by GOOSE.Select Before Operate (SBO): How the Command WorksWhat select before operate (SBO) control is, how it differs from direct operate, and how it works in IEC 61850, IEC 60870-5-104 and DNP3 (IEEE 1815).MT/ATSingle Busbar Interlocking: Bay Logic and Bus EarthingSingle busbar substation interlocking: conditions for disconnectors, circuit breaker and earthing switches, the bus earthing switch, and MV vs HV.Substation Control Levels and the Local/Remote SwitchControl levels of a substation (switchyard, bay, station and control center), the local/remote switch 43 and how IEC 61850 models control authority.Substation Interlocking: Types, Levels and LogicWhat substation interlocking is, which switching operations it prevents, its types (mechanical, electrical, key, logic, GOOSE) and where each is solved.MT/AT/EATSubstation switching: opening, closing and safetyWhat substation switching is, in what order breakers, disconnect switches and grounds are operated, the golden rules and what interlocks prevent.ANSI 25Synchrocheck voltage selection in double busHow the 25 reference voltage is selected in double bus, breaker-and-a-half and ring bus, and what happens if the selection or disconnector replica fails.MT/ATTee Connection Interlocking: Tapped Line and Remote EndsTapped line (tee connection) interlocking: tap disconnector, dependence on the remote ends, coordinated line earthing and direct transfer trip.
Need control or communications configured?We configure bay controllers, logic and interlocks, IEC 61850 networks, gateways and time synchronization remotely.
Remote configurationOther sections
ProtectionEvery protection function, protection schemes and teleprotection, coordination fundamentals, and what to do when a relay trips.Equipment and substationsCircuit breakers, transformers, CTs, VTs and other equipment by voltage level, their internal parts, bus arrangements and station service.TestingWhat each test is, what it is for, which standard defines it and which equipment and voltage levels it applies to.Standards and studiesElectrical studies, solar plants and the standards behind each test.